International Olympic Committee Research Articles

Rhodesian Readmission and the Decolonization of the National Olympic Committee of Zimbabwe

Abstract In May 1980, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognized the National Olympic Committee of Zimbabwe (ZOC) after the latter had spent five years in exile under its former name, the National Olympic Committee of Rhodesia (ROC). Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwean government's desire to have a team compete at the 1980 Moscow Olympics delayed the multiracial restructuring of the ZOC. The government's efforts to reform the ZOC, replacing the old white ROC members, transformed into a two-year-long contentious struggle. After an intervention by the IOC in June 1982, a compromise was reached. The composition of the new ZOC represented the government's greater control over sport in the country. The reformation of the ZOC demonstrates the complex process of transition from Rhodesia to Zimbabwe and the difficulties of decolonization in sport. In examining these events, this article bridges the gap between colonial Rhodesian and postcolonial Zimbabwean sport and presents a case study of decolonization within a sports administration.

Bidding for the Olympic Games: An Anatomy of Arguments

Abstract In this article, I draw on the philosopher of history Hayden White's typology of arguments to explain different accounts of bidding for the olympic games. White's typology helps explain the irreconcilable disconnect between representations of bidding for and hosting the olympic games put forward by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and its academic supporters in olympic education, on the one hand, and their critics, on the other. While I advocate for contextual-based arguments as the most appropriate for understanding bidding at different points in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, I conclude with an irony: the IOC's representations of bidding and hosting, which are based on organicist arguments presented in romantic and idealized narratives, continue to resonate better with a broad audience than fact-laden and eloquent contextualist arguments.

Assessing ethical behavior and self-control in elite ultimate championships: a cross-sectional study using the spirit of the game scoring system

Assessing ethical behavior and self-control in elite ultimate championships: a cross-sectional study using the spirit of the game scoring system

Lateral Ankle Joint Injuries in Indoor and Court Sports: A Systematic Video Analysis of 445 Nonconsecutive Case Series

Background: Lateral ankle sprains are one of the most common injuries in indoor and court sports. Self-reports and case studies have indicated that these injuries occur via both contact and noncontact injury mechanisms typically because of excessive inversion in combination with plantarflexion and adduction of the foot. Video-based documentation of the injury mechanism exists, but the number of cases reported in the literature is limited. Purpose: To retrieve and systematically analyze a large number of video-recorded lateral ankle injuries from indoor and court sports, as well as describe the injury mechanism, injury motion, and injury pattern across different sports. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 445 unique video-recorded lateral ankle sprain injuries were retrieved from indoor and court sports of broadcasted levels of competition. The videos were independently analyzed by 2 different reviewers. Outcomes included classification of the injury mechanism according to the International Olympic Committee consensus guidelines, primary and secondary motions of ankle joint distortion, and documentation of the fixation point (fulcrum) around which the foot rotates. Results: Overall, 298 (67%) injuries were direct contact, 113 (25%) were noncontact, and 32 (7%) were indirect contact incidents. Direct contact injuries were especially prevalent in basketball (76%), handball (80%), and volleyball (85%), while noncontact injuries dominated in tennis and badminton (96% vs 95% across both). Inversion (65%) and internal rotation (33%) were the primary distortion motions, with the lateral forefoot (53%) and lateral midfoot (40%) serving as the main fulcrums. Landing on another player's foot was the leading cause of injury (n = 246; 55%), primarily characterized by inversion (79%) around a midfoot fulcrum (54%). The noncontact and indirect landings on floor (n = 144; 33%) were primarily characterized by a distortion around a forefoot fulcrum (69%). Conclusion: Two of 3 ankle sprains from online video platforms were direct contact injuries, with most involving landing on another player's foot. The distortion motion seems to be related to the injury mechanism and the fixation point between the foot and the floor. The injury mechanisms varied greatly between sports, and future studies should clearly differentiate and investigate the specific injury mechanisms.

Objects, Olympics, and Femininity: Exploring the Impact of a 1924 Handheld Fan on Gender at the Games

Abstract On the second level of the Olympic Museum in Switzerland lives a handheld fan from the 1924 Paris Olympics featuring five sportswomen. The museum describes the fan as a souvenir from the Games and an advertisement for a French perfume company. However, this fan is much more than an advertisement or souvenir. Drawing upon new materialist theory, which envisions objects as lively, this article looks toward the ways the fan was productive in developing ideas around gender at the Olympics. Using an object biography, this research explores how the fan contributed to the New Woman femininity of the 1920s and currently produces a narrative of the International Olympic Committee as being a gender progressive organization. In so doing, it explores how an object that is often overlooked by many at the museum plays a powerful role in understandings of gender across the history of the Games.

How does a “neutral” rule become a systemic barrier to racial justice? Human rights activism, International Olympic Committee Rule 50, and the neutrality myth in racialized organizations

ABSTRACT This study focuses on the International Olympic Committee’s Rule 50 – a policy prohibiting athlete protest at the Games – as its site of analysis to examine how sport policy becomes contested terrain when being utilized by those in power to reinforce an unjust status quo. Specifically, we drew from critical discourse analysis and Ray’s Theory of Racialized Organizations to better understand how discourses of the neutrality of sport allow for the rule to be utilized to perpetuate hegemonic norms that silence activism among athletes and disguise unequal power relations in global sport governance. Through analysis of the contemporary discourses surrounding the IOC’s recent Rule 50 consultation, we found that those calling for keeping the rule intact framed the issue as an organizational integrity issue, whereas those calling for abolishment and amendments framed the rule as a human rights issue. As such, we critique the continuing effect of the neutrality myth in global sport governance – a harmful racist myth perpetuated by those governing Olympic sport that rests on the false claim of Olympic idealism being free from politics and social ills.

Ukrainians in Italy fight for ukraine’s participation in the Olympic Games

The article analyzes archival funds and primary sources to establish the peculiarities of the activities of the Ukrainian diaspora in Italy on the eve of the 1960 Olympic Games. Correspondence between Osip Zinkevich and Vasyl Fedorovych regarding the participation of Ukrainian athletes separately from the USSR in the Olympic Games in Rome was revealed. It was found that the Ukrainian Olympic Committee was active on the eve and during the Olympic Games, distributing memorandums to the International Olympic Committee, National Olympic Committees, International Sports Federations, etc., printing newsletters, opening an information bureau in Rome.
 The activities of the information bureau of the Ukrainian Olympic Committee contributed to the distribution in Ukrainian and English of the newsletter «For the participation of Ukraine in the Olympic Games», the organization of a press conference in Rome for the foreign press, the organization of an exhibition of Ukrainian publications in the countries of the free world, the establishment of contacts with Ukrainian (Soviet) athletes , re-presenting the issue of Ukraine's participation in the Olympic Games at the Rome session of the IOC, promoting the Olympic idea among the Ukrainian community in Ukraine and abroad, publishing the book «Ukrainian Olympic Champions» in English. The idea of local participation of the Ukrainian team in the Olympic Games has little global support.

The achievement of sustainability and legacies by the host cities of the Summer Olympiads, 2012–2024

ABSTRACT Since the emergence of the concept of sustainable development, the Olympic Games have become a vehicle to demonstrate and promote the principles and practices of sustainability. The aim of this paper is to explain and evaluate how the application of sustainable development in the context of the Summer Olympic Games has evolved. Two processes have been influential in this change: first, the institutional expectations of the International Olympic Committee have encouraged greater responsibility towards the creation of legacies by potential host cities through the IOC Charter, the Olympic Agenda 2020, and the Olympic Agenda 2020+5; and second, the context and inventiveness of host cities has created new perspectives on sustainability to secure the event and raise its global profile. This paper will focus on the sustainability benchmarks established in London 2012 and evaluate whether these have been continued or extended in the subsequent editions of the Summer Games in Rio de Janeiro (2016), Tokyo (2021) and Paris (2024). The changing discourses reveal the tensions between the IOC’s agendas for the event, the motivations of the host cities and the realities of delivery in changing socio-economic and political circumstances.

The Institutional Development of the Philippine Olympic Movement and the Current Rise of Its Olympic Athletes

The paper describes the institutional development of the Olympic movement in the Philippines from the American period to the contemporary era as it operates within the values of ‘Excellence, Respect and Friendship’ of Olympism. Using Bowen’s document analysis as a qualitative tool, the paper highlights the institutional changes and policy reforms in the Philippine sports governance in the development of the Olympic movement with emphasis on the promotion of athlete welfare in the Philippines. As an added dimension, the paper offers a passing review of the recent Olympic athletes’ protest in the Philippines and analyses the underlying assumptions of Filipino athletes’ passivity on social issues. Furthermore, the paper examines the significance of the Philippines Olympic Committee (POC) Athletes’ Commission in addressing the athletes’ rights and welfare as it interrelates and aligns itself with the goals and objectives of the International Olympic Committee Athletes’ Commission. More importantly, the paper proposes an Input-Process-Output-Outcome/Result (IPOOR) Model to measure the success of the POC Athletes’ Commission qualitatively in terms of the three levels of analysis espoused by the IOC Athlete’s Commission namely, input, output, and results, as ways forward in the promotion and development of the strategies, programmes, and projects of the Philippine Olympic movement.

Psychometric analysis of the International Olympic Committee's Sport Mental Health Assessment Triage Tool among non-elite amateur adult athletes

ABSTRACT Background The International Olympic Committee developed the Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool-1, encompassing the Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ) – used for initial screening of mental ill-being symptoms and risk in elite athletes. Despite preliminary psychometric evidence, the APSQ has yet to be tested in non-elite amateur athletes, who represent the majority of sporting participants. Method Athletes (n = 605) aged 28.57 years (SD = 9.32) comprising 402 males (73.5%) completed the 10-item APSQ, alongside validated measures of anxiety, depression and well-being. Two Confirmatory Factor Analysis models were tested, in addition to a series of receiver operating characteristics curves benchmarked against clinically relevant anxiety and depression symptoms to examine pre-defined and alternative cut-point sensitivity values. Nomological validity was tested through Pearson's correlations, and intraclass correlation coefficients were examined for test–retest reliability. Results A higher-order APSQ model comprising a general “Psychological Strain” factor, and three subcomponents of “External coping”, “Self-Regulation” and “Performance” were selected. Convergent and divergent validity were shown, and a new revised cut-point was found to have good classification accuracy within the sample. Largely “fair-to-good” test–retest reliability values were found. Conclusion The APSQ could be considered for initial screening of athlete mental health symptoms by sports organisations and may enable effective triaging to follow-up mental health assessment and/or supporting guidance, potentially preventing, or mitigating, short and long-term effects of mental ill-being. Further research should be undertaken to establish if the psychometric properties found amongst the present sample are generalisable to the broader amateur sporting population.

What impact have the IOC medical consensus statements made on athlete health? A survey of medical commissions from National Olympic/Paralympic Committees and International Sports Federations

BackgroundThe International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical and Scientific Commission has supported collating and sharing evidence globally by developing sports medicine consensus statements (‘Statements’'). Publishing the Statements requires substantial resources that...

Before Asking “What Happens Next?”: The Compatibility Between the Olympic Education Principles and The Objectives of Sport for Development and Peace

The United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace has been closed in 2017 and its mission has been conveyed to the International Olympic Committee. The aim of this article is therefore to explore whether the principles of Olympic Education, based on Olympism and the Olympic Movement, are compatible with the objectives of Sport for Development and Peace. Qualitative research method was used in this research. And phenomenological research design was adapted as an instructive method for collecting and analyzing data. In-depth, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 6 participants whom were selected through purposive sampling based on their expertise on the topics of the research question. The resulting data was compiled using descriptive analysis and classified using content analysis. According to 11 main themes and 2 sub-themes that have been deducted, it has been revealed that Olympic Education principles and Sport for Development and Peace objectives complement each other in terms of conceptual basis and practice. On the basis of the research findings, the following conclusions were drawn: The participants of the Sport for Development and Peace programmes need to take active roles in the process; the policy resolutions upon the research subjects need to be implemented fully and effectively; the stakeholders in the Olympic Education and Sport for Development and Peace processes need to be all in cooperation and coordination; the sustainability of the process needs to be maintained; the strategic partnership between the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee needs to be maintained on an equal footing.

ACTN3 XX Genotype Negatively Affects Running Performance and Increases Muscle Injury Incidence in LaLiga Football Players.

The aim of this study was to investigate the association of the ACTN3 rs1815739 polymorphism with match running performance and injury incidence in top-level professional football players. A total of 315 top-level professional football players from the first division of Spanish football (i.e., LaLiga) participated in this prospective and descriptive study. The ACTN3 rs1815739 genotype was identified for each player using genomic DNA samples. During LaLiga 2021-2022, players' performance was obtained through a validated camera system in all official matches. Additionally, the incidence of non-contact injuries was obtained by each team's medical staff according to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) statement. From the study sample, 116 (36.8%) players had the RR genotype, 156 (49.5%) had the RX genotype, and 43 (13.7%) had the XX genotype. The anthropometric characteristics of the players were similar across genotypes. However, the total running distance (p = 0.046), the distance at 21.0-23.9 km/h (p = 0.042), and the number of sprints (p = 0.042) were associated with the ACTN3 genotype. In all these variables, XX players had lower match performance values than RR players. Additionally, total and match injury incidences were higher in XX players than in RR players (p = 0.026 and 0.009, respectively). The rate of muscle injuries was also higher in XX players (p = 0.016). LaLiga football players with the ACTN3 XX genotype had lower match running performance and a higher incidence of non-contact injuries over the season.

The International Olympic Committee framework on fairness, inclusion and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations does not protect fairness for female athletes.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recently published a framework on fairness, inclusion, and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender identity and sex variations. Although we appreciate the IOC's recognition of the role of sports science and medicine in policy development, we disagree with the assertion that the IOC framework is consistent with existing scientific and medical evidence and question its recommendations for implementation. Testosterone exposure during male development results in physical differences between male and female bodies; this process underpins male athletic advantage in muscle mass, strength and power, and endurance and aerobic capacity. The IOC's "no presumption of advantage" principle disregards this reality. Studies show that transgender women (male-born individuals who identify as women) with suppressed testosterone retain muscle mass, strength, and other physical advantages compared to females; male performance advantage cannot be eliminated with testosterone suppression. The IOC's concept of "meaningful competition" is flawed because fairness of category does not hinge on closely matched performances. The female category ensures fair competition for female athletes by excluding male advantages. Case-by-case testing for transgender women may lead to stigmatization and cannot be robustly managed in practice. We argue that eligibility criteria for female competition must consider male development rather than relying on current testosterone levels. Female athletes should be recognized as the key stakeholders in the consultation and decision-making processes. We urge the IOC to reevaluate the recommendations of their Framework to include a comprehensive understanding of the biological advantages of male development to ensure fairness and safety in female sports.

Research on the Winning Factors of 3x3 Basketball Techniques

Background and Aim: China's three-player basketball sport developed rapidly after being approved by the International Olympic Committee as an Olympic event, but there are obvious shortcomings in theoretical research, technical training, tactical strategies, and international experience. The lack of in-depth theoretical research and technical training models makes it difficult for players and coaches to fully understand the characteristics and winning factors of three-player basketball, resulting in insufficient international competitiveness. In contrast, other countries such as Serbia and Latvia have performed outstandingly in this field. If China can attach importance to the theoretical research and technical training of three-player basketball, and establish an effective training model, it is expected to rapidly improve the level of three-player basketball. Materials and Methods: This article aims to deeply explore the winning factors of 3x3 basketball technology. By comprehensively using literature review, mathematical statistics, and video analysis methods, the 3x3 basketball tournament of the 32nd Tokyo Olympics is taken as the research object to conduct in-depth research on 3x3 basketball technology. Results: Latvia, the champion team of the 3x3 basketball tournament at the 32nd Tokyo Olympics, emphasizes teamwork. They have a higher three-point shooting percentage than their opponents, have more crucial close-range shots, and have a clear advantage in free throw shooting percentage. The proportion of team cooperation scores is high, mainly achieved through pick and roll assists, with high breakthrough times and success rates. They perform well in rebounding and have good error protection, but need to balance pressing and fouls. These factors together helped them achieve victory. Conclusion: In terms of scoring, the team should focus on diversified three-point training, strengthen pick and roll coordination, improve breakthrough and layup abilities, as well as free throw techniques. Cultivate team collaboration awareness and cooperation skills to ensure excellent overall performance of the team. In terms of assists, focus on practicing pick and roll and direct pass techniques, while strengthening breakthrough and finishing abilities. In breakthrough training, emphasis is placed on improving the ability to break through cover and position perception. In terms of rebounding, mistakes, and fouls, emphasis is placed on teamwork in attacking, cultivating rebounding skills, intelligent pressing, and quick counterattacks to improve the team's performance in these key areas. These training strategies help teams gain more scoring opportunities in matches and improve their overall competitive level.

Sexual Harassment/Abuse Policies in U.S. Youth Sport Programs.

Sport governing bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, have recommended youth sport organizations develop policies, procedures, and/or ethical guidelines to prevent and respond to sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) experienced by young athletes. To our knowledge, no studies have investigated SHA policies or procedures in U.S. youth sport programs. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine U.S. youth sport programs' policies regarding SHA. The results are based on a cross-sectional survey completed by youth sport coaches (n = 200) from various organizations (e.g., public recreation organizations, private nonprofit organizations, and interscholastic sports). Findings suggest that most organizations have several SHA policies, such as education and training requirements, written policies and codes of conduct regarding coach-athlete sexual relationships, and formal complaint and disclosure procedures for investigating SHA. A bivariate analysis suggests that the presence of several SHA policies was associated with an increased number of self-reported SHA incidents. Moreover, youth sport programs located in urban areas had a greater extent of SHA policies compared to those located in suburban or rural areas. These results are discussed with respect to the potential relationships between the presence of policies and increased cases of SHA. Also, we discussed advocating for equitable resources among youth sport programs regardless of geographic and/or demographic factors. Future research should identify social and cultural barriers that inhibit the successful implementation of SHA policies. While developing and implementing SHA policies is a step in the right direction, it may not be used as the only means to address this complex, systematic, and structural issue.

Orchard Sports Injury and Illness Classification System (OSIICS) Version 15

BackgroundSports medicine (injury and illnesses) requires distinct coding systems because the International Classification of Diseases is insufficient for sports medicine coding. The Orchard Sports Injury and Illness Classification System (OSIICS) is one of two sports medicine coding systems recommended by the International Olympic Committee. Regular updates of coding systems are required. MethodsFor Version 15, updates for mental health conditions in athletes, sports cardiology, concussion sub-types, infectious diseases, and skin and eye conditions were considered particularly important. ResultsRecommended codes were added from a recent International Olympic Committee consensus statement on mental health conditions in athletes. Two landmark sports cardiology papers were used to update a more comprehensive list of sports cardiology codes. Rugby union protocols on head injury assessment were used to create additional concussion codes. ConclusionThe latest iteration for use in Sports Medicine (OSIICS Version 15) will be translated into multiple new languages during 2024 to facilitate international accessibility. The large number of recently published sport-specific and discipline-specific consensus statements on athlete surveillance warrant regular updating of OSIICS.

Contradiction or Cohesion? Tracing Questions of Protection and Fairness in Scientifically Driven Elite Sport Policies

Much of the resistance and, at times, outright condemnation of including transgender individuals in sports continue to draw upon “scientific” arguments, despite the acknowledged importance of sociocultural and (geo)political factors, resulting in a constructed “either science or human rights” landscape. In this article, I analyze historical scientifically driven International Olympic Committee documents and policies from the Olympic Studies Center to examine if and how sport organizations, such as the International Olympic Committee, have historically balanced these seemingly partitioned considerations in previous regulatory documents, especially those relating to sex, gender, fairness, and protection. Using Sheila Jasanoff’s co-production, I find that, while knowledge informing policies sometimes circulates biologized gender stereotypes, sociocultural and scientific goals have, can, and should exist in cohesion rather than in contradiction.

Policy vs. practice in sport and climate change: the perspectives of key actors in global sport and international development.

Despite widespread, scientifically supported recognition of the scope of the climate crisis, and policies in place connecting sport to sustainable development, there remain concerns that the environment and climate change are rarely acknowledged within SDP activity and that even when they are, it is unclear how such policies are implemented, and to what effect. This raises the question of how and why the climate crisis and the attendant relationships between sport and sustainable development are understood and operationalized (or not) by stakeholders within the SDP sector. In this paper, therefore, we explore various perspectives and tensions around the environment and climate crisis within the SDP sector. To do so, we draw on interviews with SDP policy-makers (primarily from the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee) and SDP practitioners living and working in the global South in order to gauge the place of the environment and climate change in their everyday SDP policy-making, programming and practices. Overall, the data shows that while SDP stakeholders recognize the urgency of the climate crisis, the need for action, and the policy agenda linking sport to sustainable development, significant barriers, tensions and politics are still in place that prevent consistent climate action within SDP. Policy commitments and coherence are therefore needed in order to make climate action a core feature of SDP activity and practice.

Genes Associated with Muscle, Tendon and Ligament Injury Epidemiology in Women’s Amateur Football Players

Background: There is a lack of specific genetic studies regarding injuries in women’s football. However, different genetic factors have been associated with tendon/ligament injuries in women football players. The aim of the study was to examine the genotypic frequencies of genes associated with injury risk and epidemiology in women’s amateur football players and the aetiology of injuries. Methods: In total, 168 women’s amateur football players from football clubs in the Spanish second division league and Caucasian descent were enrolled in this prospective observational cross-sectional study. AMPD1 (rs17602729), ACE (rs4646994), ACTN3 (rs1815739), CKM (rs8111989) and MLCK (rs2849757 and rs2700352) polymorphisms were genotyped. The characteristics of 169 non-contact injuries during the 2022/2023 season were classified following the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus Statement for reporting injuries as follows: musculoskeletal, tendon/ligament, injury setting; and severity. The disequilibria of polymorphisms were estimated using the Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE). The characteristics of the injuries were recorded, and the genotype characteristics were analysed. The genotype frequencies of all polymorphisms were compared between non-injured and injured football players and injury aetiologies. Results: The AMPD1 genotype distribution differed between tendon/ligament injured and non-injured (p = 0.003) with a higher frequency in the TT genotype and T allele. The genotype distribution was different for the CKM and MLCK c.37885C>A polymorphisms in training and match injuries (p = 0.038 and p = 0.031, respectively). In the ACTN3 and AMPD1 polymorphisms, the distribution of the TT genotype in both genes showed a higher frequency in severe injuries (all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Tendon/ligament injury epidemiology in women’s amateur football players was associated especially with the TT genotype of the AMPD1 gene. The TT genotype of the AMPD1 and ACTN3 genes was also associated with severity, and the CKM and MLCK polymorphisms were associated with injury settings.